404: Egypt gains independence; Twenty-Eighth Dynasty of Egypt

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The Liberation of 404 BCE - Egypt's Independence and the Rise of the Twenty-Eighth Dynasty

The Fall of Persian Rule and Egyptian Independence

In 404 BCE, Egypt successfully broke free from the control of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, marking the beginning of a brief but significant period of native Egyptian rule—the Twenty-Eighth Dynasty. This independence was achieved during a time of instability within the Persian Empire, particularly following the death of Darius II and the ensuing succession struggles involving his sons, Artaxerxes II and Cyrus the Younger.

The Key Figure: Amyrtaeus of Sais

The leader of this rebellion was Amyrtaeus (or Amenirdisu) of Sais, a descendant of the earlier Saite kings of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. Unlike previous revolts against Persian rule (such as those under Inaros and Psamtik IV), Amyrtaeus' uprising succeeded in expelling the Persians, at least temporarily, from Egypt.

Military and Political Strategy: Amyrtaeus likely capitalized on Persian distractions, including internal conflicts and revolts in other satrapies.
Legitimacy: Though not of royal blood in the strictest sense, he presented himself as a restorer of native rule, appealing to Egyptian nationalism and resentment of foreign domination.

The Twenty-Eighth Dynasty: A Short-Lived Revival

The Twenty-Eighth Dynasty consisted solely of Amyrtaeus, who ruled for about six years (404-398 BCE). His reign was marked by:
- Consolidation of Power: Efforts to re-establish Egyptian administration and religious traditions.
- Challenges: Persistent threats from Persia, which sought to reclaim Egypt.

Downfall and Legacy

Amyrtaeus was eventually overthrown by Nepherites I, founder of the Twenty-Ninth Dynasty, who may have viewed him as ineffective or illegitimate. Despite its brevity, the Twenty-Eighth Dynasty was significant as the first native Egyptian rule after over a century of Persian occupation, foreshadowing the more stable Thirtieth Dynasty that followed.

Historical Sources and Uncertainties

Our knowledge of this period is limited due to fragmentary records. Manetho, an Egyptian historian, lists Amyrtaeus as the sole ruler of the Twenty-Eighth Dynasty, but details of his reign remain scarce. Archaeological and textual evidence from this era is sparse, leaving some aspects of his rule open to interpretation.

Conclusion

The independence of Egypt in 404 BCE was a fleeting but important moment in its long history of resistance against foreign domination. Though the Twenty-Eighth Dynasty was short-lived, it set the stage for a renewed era of native rule before Persia (and later Alexander the Great) would once again reshape Egypt's destiny.